The Cosmic Struggle of Az and Xrad in Ancient Iranian Culture; A case Study of the Shahnameh in Relation to Middle Persian Sources

Articles in Press

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Department of history, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Shiraz University

2 Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

10.22099/jchr.2025.52177.1003

Abstract

One of the fundamental aspects of Zoroastrianism is the cosmic dualism and conflict between the forces of good and evil, a struggle that begins with creation and ultimately culminates in the triumph of good over evil. Within this framework, two ancient concepts “Xrad” and “Āz”, emerge as opposing elements aligned with good and evil, respectively, and are occasionally portrayed in direct opposition to one another. This confrontation between Āz and Xrad, is clearly reflected in several verses of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and can also be identified in Middle Persian texts and even Manichaean literature. A comparative analysis of the Shahnameh and Middle Persian sources not only facilitates a deeper understanding of this dualism but also sheds light on how these elements are represented in the Shahnameh which is a pivotal work in the cultural, mythological, and historical heritage of ancient Iran. In this study, we have conducted a library-based investigation of the opposition between Āz and Xrad in the Shahnameh, correlating our findings with available evidence from Middle Persian texts. The results indicate that the verses in the Shahnameh depicting the conflict between Āz and Khrad align with certain motifs found in Middle Persian literature. Furthermore, given the Shahnameh's distinct nature, language, and sources in comparison to the aforementioned texts, our analysis suggests that the concepts of Āz and Xrad and their antagonism gradually transcended their original religious context to become integral elements of broader Iranian cultural thought.

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Journal of Civilization History

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript
Available Online from 17 June 2025

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